Chapter 6

1. Facts, Data, Knowledge and Information

  . In reality, data does not exist. Only facts appear in the real world. In this sense, data are the conscious records of a particular part of reality that a researcher observes.

  . According to Daniel Bell, knowledge is "a set of organized statements of facts or ideas, presenting a reasoned judgment or an experiment result, which is transmitted to others through some communication medium in some systematic form".

  . According to Machlup, information is "the communication of knowledge".

2. Research 

. Research is the systematic collection and interpretation of information to increase understanding.

  . Research is conducted to do 3 things: describe, explain and predict.

  . Research must be essentially the first step in any project because it enables realizing management's goals.

3. The Four Step Research Model

  It is simply the RACE model suggested by John Marston.

4. Principles of PR Research

  In 1997, the Institute for Public Relations Research and Education offered six guiding principles to set standard for PR research.

  1. Establishing clear program objectives and desired outcomes tied directly to business goals.

  2. Differentiating between measuring PR outputs generally short-term and measuring PR outcomes usually more far reaching.

  3. Measuring media content as a first step in the PR evaluation process.

  4. Understanding that no one technique can expect to evaluate PR effectiveness; a combination of research techniques should be used:

  + Media analysis

+ Cyberspace analysis

+ Focus groups

+ Polls

+ Survey

  5. Being wary of attempts to compare PR effectiveness with advertising effectiveness.

  6. The most trustworthy measurement of PR effectiveness is that which stems from an organization which clearly

+ Identifies key messages

+ Targets audiences

+ Selects channels of communication

5. Types of PR research

  a. Primary research

            1. Applied research resolves practical problems.

  + Strategic research is used primarily in a program development to develop program objectives, message strategies, and to establish benchmarks.

                  + Evaluative research is conducted primarily to determine whether a PR program has accomplished its goals and objectives.

  2. Theoretical research aids understanding a PR process.

  . It is more abstract and conceptual than applied research.

  . It helps build theories in PR work about:

  + why people communicate

  + how public opinion is formed

  + how a public is created

  . The typical sources of theoretical research are encyclopedia, handbooks, books, academic journals, online resources, magazines and newspapers.

  b. Secondary Research

  . It is desk research that uses data that have been collected for other purposes than your own.

  . It enables saving time and money.

            . Among the typical sources of secondary research: census data, public records, governmental websites, informal contacts, etc.

6. Methods of PR Research

Three primary forms of PR research dominate the field:

  1. Surveys

  There are 2 types of surveys:

+ Descriptive surveys: offer a snapshot of a current situation or condition.

                  + Explanatory surveys: these are concerned with cause and effect. The purpose of these surveys is:

                       . To explain why a current situation or condition exists.

  . To offer explanations for opinion and attitudes.

  Surveys generally consist of 4 elements: sample, questionnaire, interview and analysis of results.

  2. Communication audits

  . Communication audits are typically used to analyze the standing of a company with its employees or community neighbors to assess the

routine communication vehicles such as: manual reports, news release, examine an organization's performance as a corporate citizen.

  . CA present a complete analysis of an organization's internal and external communications, designed to determine:

  + communication needs

  + policies

  + practices

  + capabilities

  . The results are used by management to make informed decisions about future communication needs and goals.

  . Typically, audits are used to provide information on issues such as:

  + Objectives and short/long-term goals

                        + Existing communication vehicles and publications

  + Bottlenecked information flows

  + Conflicting and non-existing notions about what the organization is and does

  . Methodology

  + CA is a straightforward analysis

1. Pertinent literature review

  2. Competitive literature is then reviewed for purposes of comparison and contrast

  3. Interview with top management

  4. Recommendations

  + The most effective CAs start with a researcher who:

  1. is familiar with the public to be studied

  2. understands the attitudes of the target public toward the organization

3. recognizes the issues of concern to the target public

4. understands the relative power of the target public vis-à-vis other publics

  3. Unobtrusive methods

  a. Fact-finding

                        . The most widely used unobtrusive method of data collection in PR.

  . Most essential data can be filed in publications.

  b. Content analysis

  . Its primary purpose is to describe a message or a set of messages.

  . Content analysis might be organized according to the following specific criteria

  + Frequency of coverage

  + Placement within the paper

  + People reached

  + Message conveyed

  + Editing of release

  + Attitude conveyed

  c. Readability study

  . It is about investigating about whether the written messages fit the right educational level of the targeted audience or not.